Bjork Lab
Human Learning & Memory
UCLA Psychology Department

Robert A. Bjork - Publications

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1Batchelder,W. H., Bjork, R. A., & Yellott, J. I. (1966). Problems in mathematical learning theory. New York: Wiley.

2Bjork, R. A. (1966). Learning and short-term retention of paired associates in relation to specific sequences of interpresentation intervals (Doctoral Dissertation, Stanford University). Dissertation Abstracts, 27, 3684B. (University Microfilms No. 67-4316).

3Bjork, R. A., LaBerge, D., & LeGrande, R. (1968). The modification of short-term memory through instructions to forget. Psychonomic Science, 10, 55-56.

4Bjork, R. A. (1968). All-or-none subprocesses in the learning of complex sequences. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 5, 182-195.

5Bjork, R. A. (1970a) Repetition and rehearsal mechanisms in models of short-term memory. In D. A. Norman (Ed.), Models of memory (pp. 307-330). New York: Academic Press.

6Bjork, R. A. (1970b). Positive forgetting: the noninterference of items intentionally forgotten. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 9, 255-268. Reprinted by Bobbs-Merrill

7Bjork, R. A., & Allen, T. W. (1970). The spacing effect: Consolidation or differential encoding? Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 9, 567-572.

8Woodward, A. E., & Bjork, R. A. (1971). Forgetting and remembering in free recall: Intentional and unintentional. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 89, 109-116.

9Bjork, R. A. (1972). Theoretical implications of directed forgetting. In A. W. Melton & E. Martin (Eds.), Coding processes in human memory (pp. 217-235). Washington, D.C.: Winston.

10Greeno, J. G., & Bjork, R. A. (1973). Mathematical learning theory and the new "mental forestry." In P. H. Mussen & M. R. Rosenzweig (Eds.), Annual Review of Psychology (pp. 81-116). Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews.

11Reitman, W., Malin, J. T., Bjork, R. A., & Higman, B. (1973). Strategy control and directed forgetting. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 12, 140-149.

12Bjork, R. A., & Woodward, A. E. (1973). Directed forgetting of individual words in free recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 99, 22-27.

13Bjork, R. A. (1973). Why mathematical models? American Psychologist, 28, 426-433.

14Woodward, A. E., Bjork, R. A., & Jongeward, R. H. (1973). Recall and recognition as a function of primary rehearsal. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 12, 608-617.

15Reder, L., Anderson, J. R., & Bjork, R. A. (1974). A semantic interpretation of encoding specificity. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 102, 648-656.

16Bjork, R. A., & Whitten, W. B. (1974). Recency-sensitive retrieval processes in long-term free recall. Cognitive Psychology, 6, 173-189.

17Jongeward, R. H., Woodward, A. E., & Bjork, R. A. (1975). The relative roles of input and output mechanisms in directed forgetting. Memory & Cognition, 3, 51-57.

18Elmes, D. G., & Bjork, R. A. (1975). The interaction of encoding and rehearsal processes in the recall of repeated and nonrepeated items. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 14, 30-42.

19Bjork, R. A. (1975). Short-term storage: The ordered output of a central processor. In F. Restle, R. M. Shiffrin, N. J. Castellan, H. R. Lindeman, & D. B. Pisoni (Eds.), Cognitive theory (Vol.1, pp. 151-171). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

20Bjork, R. A. (1975). Retrieval as a memory modifier. In R. Solso (Ed.), Information processing and cognition: The Loyola Symposium (pp. 123-144). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

21Whitten, W. B., & Bjork, R. A. (1977). Learning from tests: The effects of spacing. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 16, 465-478.

22Bjork, R. A., & Geiselman, R. E. (1978). Constituent processes in the differentiation of items in memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 4, 347-361.

23Bjork, R. A. (1978). The updating of human memory. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation. (Vol. 12., pp. 235-259). New York: Academic Press.

24Smith, S. M, Glenberg, A. M., & Bjork, R. A. (1978). Environmental context and human memory. Memory & Cognition, 6, 342-353.

25Landauer, T. K., & Bjork, R. A. (1978). Optimum rehearsal patterns and name learning. In M. M. Gruneberg, P. E. Morris, & R. N. Sykes (Eds.), Practical aspects of memory (pp. 625-632). London: Academic Press.

26Bjork, R. A., & Landauer, T. K. (1978). On keeping track of the present status of people and things. In M. M. Gruneberg, P. E. Morris, & R. N. Sykes (Eds.), Practical aspects of memory. London: Academic Press.

27Bjork, R. A. (1979). An information-processing analysis of college teaching. Educational Psychologist, 14, 15-23.

28Geiselman, R. E., & Bjork, R. A. (1980). Primary and secondary rehearsal in imagined voices: Differential effects on recognition. Cognitive Psychology, 12, 188-205.

29Bjork, R. A. (1982). Editorial: Some observations on a year's worth of manuscripts. Memory & Cognition, 10, 1.

30Geiselman, R. E., Bjork, R. A., & Fishman, D. (1983). Disrupted retrieval in directed forgetting: A link with posthypnotic amnesia. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 112, 58-72.

31Firstenberg, I., & Bjork, R. A. (1983). Memory dynamics and marketing. In J. C. Anderson (Ed.), Proceedings of the division of consumer psychology. Washington, D. C.: American Psychological Association.

32Jahnke, J. C., Bower, R. E., & Bjork, R. A. (1985). The stimulus prefix is not irrelevant and is redundant in different ways. Memory & Cognition, 13, 501-506.

33Richardson-Klavehn, A., & Bjork, R. A. (1988). Measures of memory. Annual Review of Psychology, 39, 475-543.

34Bjork, E. L., & Bjork, R. A. (1988). On the adaptive aspects of retrieval failure in autobiographical memory. In M. M. Gruneberg, P. E. Morris, & R. N. Sykes (Eds.), Practical Aspects of Memory II (pp. 283-288). London: Wiley.

35Bjork, R. A. (1988). Retrieval practice and the maintenance of knowledge. In M. M. Gruneberg, P. E. Morris, & R. N. Sykes (Eds.), Practical aspects of memory II (pp. 396-401). London: Wiley.

36Hirshman, E. L., & Bjork, R. A. (1988). The generation effect: Support for a two-factor theory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 14, 484-494.

37Bjork, R. A., & Schneider, W. (1988). Learning during sleep and accelerated learning. In D. Druckman & J. A. Swets (Eds.), Enhancing human performance: Issues, theories, and techniques (pp. 39-60). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

38Landers, D. M., & Bjork, R. A. (1988). Improving motor skills. In D. Druckman & J. A. Swets (Eds.), Enhancing human performance: Issues, theories, and techniques (pp. 61-102). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

39Richardson-Klavehn, A., & Bjork, R. A. (1988). Primary vs. Secondary rehearsal in an imagined voice: Differential effects on recognition memory and perceptual identification. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 26, 187-190.

40Bjork, R. A. (1989). Retrieval inhibition as an adaptive mechanism in human memory. In H. L. Roediger and F. I. M. Craik (Eds.), Varieties of memory and consciousness: Essays in honour of Endel Tulving (pp. 309-330). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

41Bjork, R. A., & Richardson-Klavehn, A. (1989). On the puzzling relationship between environmental context and human memory. In C. Izawa (Ed.), Current issues in cognitive processes: The Tulane Flowerree Symposium on Cognition (pp. 313-344). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

42Swets, J. A., & Bjork, R. A. (1990). Enhancing human performance: A study of the National Research Council for the Army Research Institute. Psychological Science, 1, 85-96.

43Spellman, B. A., & Bjork, R. A. (1991). The Cognitive Testing System: A User's Manual. Los Angeles, CA: Academic Publishing Services (UCLA).

44Metcalfe, J., & Bjork, R. A. (1991). Composite models never (well, hardly ever) compromise: Reply to Schooler & Tanaka (1991). Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 120, 203-210.

45Chi, M. T. H., & Bjork, R. A. (1991). Modelling expertise. In D. Druckman & R. A. Bjork (Eds.), In the mind's eye: Enhancing human performance (pp. 57-79). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

46Christina, R. W., & Bjork, R. A. (1991). Optimizing long-term retention and transfer. In D. Druckman & R. A. Bjork (Eds.), In the mind's eye: Enhancing human performance (pp. 23-56). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

47Druckman, D., & Bjork, R. A. (Eds.). (1991). In the mind's eye: Enhancing human performance. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

48Capps, L., & Bjork, R. A. (1991, October 19). Molding memories to fit our life stories. Santa Barbara News-Press.

49Bjork, R. A. (1991, November). On giving psychology away. APS Observer, pp. 2, 12.

50Bjork, R. A., & Druckman, D. (1991, November). How do you improve human performance? APS Observer, pp. 13-25.

51Bjork, R. A., & Druckman, D. (1991/1992). Fooling ourselves about improving ourselves. National Academy Op-Ed Service. (Published in whole or in part by 80 newspapers; see, e.g., the San Francisc Chronicle, November 5, 1991.) Reprinted, 1993, in D. Jarmul (Ed.), Headline News, Science Views II. (pp. 35-37). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

52Bjork, R. A., & Vanhuele, M. (1992). Retrieval inhibition and related adaptive peculiarities of human memory. In J. F. Sherry, Jr. & B. Sternthal (Eds.), Advances in consumer research (Vol. 19, pp. 155- 60). Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research.

53Bjork, R. A., & Bjork, E. L. (1992). A new theory of disuse and an old theory of stimulus fluctuation. In A. Healy, S. Kosslyn, & R. Shiffrin (Eds.), From learning processes to cognitive processes: Essays in honor of William K. Estes (Vol. 2, pp. 35-67). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

54Bjork, R. A. (1992). William Kaye Estes as mentor, colleague, and friend. In A. Healy, S. Kosslyn, & R. Shiffrin (Eds.), From learning theory to connectionist theory (Vol. 1, pp. vii-x) and From learning processes to cognitive processes: Essays in honor of William K. Estes. (Vol. 2, pp. viii-xi). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

55Schmidt, R. A., & Bjork, R. A. (1992). New conceptualizations of practice: Common principles in three paradigms suggest new concepts for training. Psychological Science, 3, 207-217. Reprinted, 1993, Effective School Practices, 12, 36-48; Reprinted, D.A. Robin, K. Yorkston, and D.R. Beukelman [Eds.], Disorders of motor speech: Recent advances in assessment, treatment, and clinical characterization.

56Spellman, B. A., & Bjork, R. A. (1992). Technical commentary: When predictions create reality: Judgments of learning may alter what they are intended to assess. Psychological Science, 3, 315-316.

57Vanhuele, M., & Bjork, R. A. (1992). The dynamics of learning and forgetting: A new model and its application to advertising. In K. G. Grunert & D. Fuglede (Eds.), Proceedings of the 21st Annual Conference of the European Marketing Academy (pp. 1411-1413). Denmark: Arhus School of Business.

58Bjork, R. A. (1992). Interference and memory. In L. R. Squire (Ed.), Encyclopedia of learning and memory (pp. 283-288). New York: Macmillan.

59Capps, L., Bjork, R. A., & Siegel, D. (1993). The meaning of memories: "Untraditional" Vietnam Memorial inspires remembering...and healing. UCLA Magazine, 4, 8-9.

60Anderson, M. C., & Bjork, R. A. (1994). Mechanisms of inhibition in long-term memory: A new taxonomy. In D. Dagenbach & T. Carr (Eds.), Inhibitory processes in attention, memory, and language (pp. 265-325). New York: Academic Press.

61Bjork, R. A. (1994a). Memory and metamemory considerations in the training of human beings. In J. Metcalfe and A. Shimamura (Eds.), Metacognition: Knowing about knowing (pp.185-205). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

62Druckman, D. & Bjork, R. A. (Eds.) (1994). Learning, remembering, believing: Enhancing human performance. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

63Bjork, R. A. (1994b). Institutional impediments to effective training. In D. Druckman and R. A.Bjork (Eds.), Learning, remembering, believing: Enhancing human performance (pp.295-306). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

64Jacoby, L. L., Bjork, R. A., & Kelley, C. M. (1994). Illusions of comprehension, competence, and remembering. In D. Druckman and R. A. Bjork (Eds.), Learning, remembering, believing: Enhancing human performance (pp.57-80). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

65Wegner, D.M., Eich, E., & Bjork, R. A. (1994). Thought suppression. In D. Druckman and R. A.Bjork (Eds.), Learning, remembering, believing: Enhancing human performance (pp.277-293). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

66Richardson-Klavehn, A., Lee, M.G., Joubran, R., & Bjork, R. A. (1994). Intention and awareness in the perceptual identification priming. Memory & Cognition, 22, 293-312.

67Anderson, M.C., Bjork, R. A., & Bjork, E. L. (1994). Remembering can cause forgetting: Retrieval dynamics in long-term memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 20, 1063-1087.

68Bjork, R. A., & Druckman, D. (1994). The untapped potential of training. National Academy News Service. (Published in whole or in part by 20 newspapers; see, e.g., the Oakland Tribune, October 14, 1994.)

69Bjork, R. A. (1995). Editorial. Psychological Review, 102, 3.

70Shaw, J.S., Bjork, R. A., & Handal, A. (1995). Retrieval-induced forgetting in an eyewitness paradigm. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 2, 249-253.

71deWinstanley, P. A., Bjork, E. L., & Bjork, R. A. (1996). Generation effects and the lack thereof: The role of transfer-appropriate processing. Memory, 4, 31-48.

72Bjork, E. L., & Bjork, R. A. (1996). Continuing influences of to-be-forgotten information. Consciousness and Cognition, 5, 176-196.

73Bjork, E. L., & Bjork, R. A. (Eds.) (1996). Memory. Volume 10, E.C. Carterette and M.P. Friedman (Eds.), Handbook of perception and cognition. New York: Academic Press.* *Selected as a CHOICE Outstanding Academic Book for 1997.

74Bjork, R. A., & Wickens, T.D. (1996). Memory, metamemory, and conditional statistics. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 19, 193-194.

75Benjamin, A. S. & Bjork, R. A. (1996). Retrieval fluency as a metacognitive index. In L. M. Reder (Ed.), Implicit memory and metacognition: The 27th Carnegie Symposium on Cognition (pp. 309-338). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

76Ghodsian, D., Bjork, R. A., & Benjamin, A. S. (1997). Evaluating training during training: Obstacles and Opportunities. In M. A. Quinones and A. Ehrenstein (Eds.), Training in a rapidly changing workplace: Applications of psychological research (pp. 63-88). Washington DC: American Psychological Association.

77Benjamin, A.S. & Bjork, R. A. (1997). Problematic aspects of embodied memory [Commentary on Glenberg's (1997) target article "What memory is for."]. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 20, 20.

78Schwartz, B. L., Benjamin, A. S., & Bjork, R. A. (1997). The inferential and experiential basis of metamemory. Current Direction in Psychological Science, 6, 132-137.

79Bjork, R. A. (1998). Intentional forgetting in perspective: Comments, conjectures, and some directed remembering. In J. M. Golding and C. MacLeod (Eds.), Intentional forgetting: Interdisciplinary approaches (pp. 453-481). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

80Bjork, E. L., Bjork, R. A., & Anderson, M. C. (1998). Varieties of goal-directed forgetting. In J. M. Golding and C. MacLeod (Eds.), Intentional forgetting: Interdisciplinary approaches (pp.103-137). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

81Benjamin, A. S., Bjork, R. A., & Schwartz, B. L. (1998). The mismeasure of memory: When retrieval fluency is misleading as a metamnemonic index. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 127, 55-68.

82Benjamin, A. S., Bjork, R. A., & Hirshman, E. (1998). Predicting the future and reconstructing the past: A bayesian characterization of the utility of subjective fluency. Acta Psychologica, 98, 267-290.

83Bjork, R. A. (1999). Assessing our own competence: Heuristics and illusions. In D. Gopher and A. Koriat (Eds.), Attention and peformance XVII. Cognitive regulation of performance: Interaction of theory and application (pp. 435-459). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

84Lang, A. J., Craske, M. G., & Bjork, R. A. (1999). Implications of a new theory of disuse for the treatment of emotional disorders. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 6, 80-94.

85Bjork, R. A. (2000). Psychological Review across the century. Psychological Review, 107, 3-5.

86Anderson, M. C., Bjork, E. L., & Bjork, R. A. (2000). Retrieval-induced forgetting: Evidence for a recall-specific mechanism. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 7, 522-530.

87Benjamin, A. S., & Bjork, R. A. (2000). On the relationship between recognition speed and accuracy for words rehearsed via primary versus secondary rehearsal. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 26, 638-648.

88Ceci, S. J., & Bjork, R. A. (2000). Psychological Science in the Public Interest: The case for juried analyses. Psychological Science, 11, 177-178.

89Bjork, R. A., & Ceci, S. J. (2000). The birth of Psychological Science in the Public Interest. American Psychological Society Observer, 13, 5, 14.

90Bjork, R. A. (2000, July/August). Toward one world of psychological science. American Psychological Society Observer, 13, 3.

91Bjork, R. A. (2000). Independence of scientific publishing: Reaffirming the principle. American Psychologist, 55, 981-984.

92Fritz, C. O., Morris, P. E., Bjork, R. A., Gelman, R., & Wickens, T. D. (2000) When further learning fails: Stability and change following repeated presentation of text. British Journal of Psychology, 91, 493-511.

93Bjork, R. A. (2000, October). Human factors 101: Why don't they just try things out? American Psychological Society Observer, 13, 3, 14.

94Bjork, R. A. (2000, November). Differing views of individual differences. American Psychological Society Observer, 13, 3, 26.

95Bjork, R. A. (2000, December). Giving away and selling the behavioral sciences. Monitor on Psychology, 31, 27.

96Bjork, R. A. (2001). Recency and recovery in human memory. In H. L. Roediger, J. S. Nairne, I Neath, & A. M. Surprenant (Eds.), The nature of remembering: Essays in honor of Robert G. Crowder (pp. 211-232). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association Press.

97Bjork, R. A. (2001, March). How to succeed in college: Learn how to learn. American Psychological Society Observer, 14, 3, 9.

98Simon, D. A., & Bjork, R. A. (2001). Metacognition in motor learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 27, 907-912. *Featured, Science Watch, Monitor on Psychology (2001, July/August): "A blind spot in motor learning," Siri Carpenter.

99Wagner, A. D., Maril, A., Bjork, R. A., & Schacter, D. L. (2001). Prefrontal contributions to executive control: fMRI evidence for functional distinctions within lateral prefrontal cortex. NeuroImage, 14, 1337-1347.

100deWinstanley, P. A., & Bjork, R. A. (2002). Successful lecturing: Presenting. information in ways that engage effective processing. In D. F. Halpern & M. D. Hakel (Eds.), Applying the Science of Learning to University Teaching and Beyond (pp. 19-31). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

101Kimball, D. R., & Bjork, R. A. (2002). The influence of intentional and unintentional forgetting on false memories Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 131, 116-130.

102Richardson-Klavehn, A., & Bjork, R. A. (2002). Memory: Long term. Encyclopedia of cognitive science. Vol. 2 (pp. 1096-1105). London: Nature Publishing Group.

103Simon, D. A., & Bjork, R. A. (2002). Models of performance in learning multi-segment movement tasks: Consequences for acquisition, retention and judgments of learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 8, 222-232.

104Bjork, R. A. (2003). Interference and forgetting. In J. H. Byrne (Ed.), Encyclopedia of learning and memory, 2nd ed., (pp. 268-273). New York: Macmillan Reference USA.

105Bjork, E. L., & Bjork, R. A. (2003). Intentional Forgetting can.increase, not decrease, the residual influences of to-be-forgotten information. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory,Cognition, 29, 524-531. *Featured, Science in Brief, Monitor on Psychology (2003, September): "Study finds a dark side to forgetting false information," E. Bensen.

106Ceci, S. J., & Bjork, R. A. (2003). Editorial: Science, Politics, and Violence in the Media. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4, i-iii.

107MacLeod, M. D., Bjork, R. A. & Bjork, E. L. (2003). The role of retrieval-induced forgetting in the construction and distortion of memories (pp.55-68). In B. Kokinov & W. Hirst (Eds.), Constructive Memory: NBU Series in Cognitive Science. Sophia: New Bulgarian University.

108Koriat, A., Bjork, R. A., Sheffer, L., & Bar, S. K. (2004). Predicting one's own forgetting: The role of experience-based and theory-based processes. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 133, 643-656.

109Koriat, A., & Bjork, R. A. (2005). Illusions of competence in monitoring one's knowledge during study. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, Cognition, 31, 187-194.

110Storm, B. C., Bjork, E. L., & Bjork, R. A, (2005). Social metacognitive judgments: The role of retrieval-induced forgetting in person memory and impressions. Journal of Memory and Language, 52, 535-550.

111Appleton-Knapp, S., Bjork, R. A., & Wickens, T. D. (2005). Examining the spacing effect in advertising: Encoding variability, retrieval processes and their interaction. Journal of Consumer Research, 32, 266–276.

112Bjork, R. A., & Bjork, E. L. (2006). Optimizing treatment and instruction: Implications of a new theory of disuse. In L-G. Nilsson and N. Ohta (Eds.), Memory and society: Psychological perspectives (pp. 109-133). Psychology Press: Hove and New York.

113Bjork, E. L., Bjork, R. A., & MacLeod, M. D. (2006). Types and consequences of forgetting: Intended and unintended. In L-G. Nilsson and N. Ohta (Eds.), Memory and society: Psychological perspectives (pp.134-158). Psychology Press: Hove and New York.

114Bjork, R. A., & Linn, M. C. (2006, March). The Science of Learning and the Learning of Science: Introducing Desirable Difficulties. American Psychological Society Observer, 19, 29, 39.

115Koriat, A., Ma'ayan H., Sheffer, L., & Bjork, R. A. (2006). Exploring a mnemonic debiasing account of the underconfidence-with-practice effect. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 32, 595-608.

116Koriat, A., & Bjork, R. A. (2006). Illusions of competence during study can be remedied by manipulations that enhance learners' sensitivity to retrieval conditions at test. Memory & Cognition, 34, 959-972.

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